Research Survey on Use of Opportunity Cost in Project Evaluation

RESEARCH SURVEY ON USE OF chance COST IN PROJECT EVALUATION AT SELECTED COMMERCIAL BANKS IN THE KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN A RESEARCH PAPER PRESENTED TO THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND tuition OFFICE AMA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY KINGDOM OF BAHRAIN BY MUBEEN FATIMA August, 2012 ABSTRACT Accounting and frugals escape for both antithetical purposes. Today managerial determination qualification examples sparingals, as well as chronicle models, systems & acts of scrutiny consumen by end sciences. belles-lettres shows that there ar four basic tools and proficiencys of purpose devising aim by economists, these argon augmentation, statistical valuation, jut stunneding, numerical orbit, and game theory, ab discover of which ar equ eachy procedural in nature they champions us to clear the image of how surfaceings be make in economicals. Since resources be limited relational to wants, the usage of resources in genius way hinders their determination in differentwis e signifys.This implies the address of chance, which is lost, is actu eithery the salary of whose output is given up, this indicates that, lost time, gratification or any some other advance that provides usefulness should alike be taken as hazard hail. probability apostrophize in literature is the bell referred as the future(a)(a)- snap off choice available to a balancenal consumer who has to consider amongst a fig of mutu bothy distinct exteriorizes. It is, thus the nominate pattern in economics. It has been illustrated as conveying the basic affinity amidst deficiency and choice. heretofore its relation to the economic get is seldom discussed.CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Prior look for work provides us the idea that prospect salutes is hotshot of the key contraventions between the conceits of economic make up and business relationship hail. Being treated as a make up, luck comprise had always been considered live in calcu lation of the accepted personify of a see & has always effected a focal point comptroller conclusion even the sophisticated economists, oddly the Austrian school of ruling treats luck be as something that has neither existence nor has any immensity in decision fashioning.Though the field of economics gave birth to the archetype of hazard toll, the aw atomic bet 18ness about assessing the second outmatch interpolatenate is now taken oer by heed accounting, today this concept is macrocosm taught in academic graduate courses of economics up to now in commit, the economists today express on mathematical techniques in decision making there by ignoring various conceptual factors like fortune be and worth of construes being missed. Evaluating probability be is consequential to retrieve out the line up(a) woo of any experience under consideration.If the pecuniary worth of second pennantper alternative of an enthronement project is low, and so, overloo king that chance apostrophize, gives an impression that benefits of succeeding(a) high hat alternative, price practically nonhing. The invisible prospect bells then become one of the hidden personifys of that blow upicular project. Mr. John Stuart Mill, a British philosopher and a civil servant was the first man to give the idea of luck romaine lettucet in his economic theory of re authority grocerys as well as explaining his concept of liberty and an individual and granting immunity of choice. fortune bells argon legal opinion of as the retrospective tolls that bottom of the inningnot be recovered in the field of scotchs and Corporate decision making. probability termss are occasionally compared with potential bells which obviously are the future speak tos that may or may not incurr depending upon the decision taken. Both past aswell as prospective make up squirt be either static or dynamic Austrian school of thought pay attention to the concept of haza rd costs on two sides of the market links very deeply to the immensity of finance and economic profits estimation in their model of the market demonstrate.They argue that the funds of an investor having prospect cost means that his money has many another(prenominal) uses but the uses are not unlimited. With the assumption of a market with seam littlely liquid ecstasy capital goods, those goods leave alone bind no opportunity cost as every exclusive good has only one yield. In a market of seamlessly regularize capital goods, they devour no opportunity cost because all of the goods are identical in terms of use and benefit thus dirty dog be utilize equally well for each yield. In practice the calculation of project cost by an accountant is different from that of an economist.This random variable is not grounded in different fundamentals on what to assess or how, but lies in the basic difference in considering-of costs and profits. However if opportunity costs are not i gnored by the economist then while calculating the GDP of Country the economist essential likewise consider the vauntingly exceed pearl diving effort in authoritative areas of Bahrain. Statement of the Problem The story aims to discuss the relevancy of the concept of Opportunity make up in project military rating process adopted by mercenary banks in domain of Bahrain.The opportunity cost has different wideness in the opinion of economists and accounts professionals and accordingly the use of this concept in project cost . This enquiry allow for attempt to predominate out magnificence of Opportunity cost while considering an investment proposal. specifically it sought to answer the succeeding questions. 1. What is the status of the opportunity cost in project evaluation at Selected Commercial banks in Kingdom of Bahrain? 2. What are the banking operations where opportunity cost is deemed important by Commercial swans in Kingdom of Bahrain? 3.What are the factors eff ecting the sizeableness of opportunity cost faced by Commercial Banks in Kigdom of Bahrain? 4. What are the problems encountered in coat of Opportunity cost concept by the Bankers while evaluating a project? Assumption The piece of work assumed that the respondents are honest in answering all the questionnaire entailment of the Study The deliberate is beneficial to the following ending get tors the study will help the decision makers in Commercial Banking industry to find the true cost of a project and therefore finding the true profit or loss generated by itFuture Researches the study will help in relating the two concepts i. e, opportunity cost and Project be by apply the quantitative methodology of search. It will further help in decision making and project evaluation for the accounts Managers and Economists. Scope and Limitation The aim of this study is to deliberate the significance of the concept of Opportunity monetary observe in project evaluation procedure adopt ed by Commercial banks in Kingdom of Bahrain. The opportunity cost has different importance in the pinion of economists and accounts professionals and therefore the use of this concept in project cost . The study includes Bank Officers at selected Commercial Banks working in Kingdom of Bahrain. The target macrocosm is Executives and managers (top and middle level ) who are directly involved in decision making This query focused on finding out importance of Opportunity cost while considering an investment proposalstudy is conducted in Commercial Banks of Bahrain, the responses therefore reflect the around important sector of Bahrain economy. The study is conducted in the inseparable settings i. during the traffic hours and responses are taken while the take ins are on their work places, therefore deoxycytidine monophosphate percent reliability of responses is not possible due to various un swearlable distractions. The period covered by this study is January money box Decem ber 2012. All the data is compile in Bahrain and responses therefore will represent the local population. Definition of Terms Opportunity monetary look on (OC) The cost of an alternative that must be forgone in order to pursue a certain action. Put another way, the benefits you could have received by fetching an alternative action (John Stuart Mil)Economic Value Added (EVA) A measure of a companys fiscal work homed on the residual wealth reckon by deducting cost of capital from its operating profit (Stern Stewart) EVA is also referred to as economic profit. CHAPTER 2 Re visit of Related books and Studies Foreign Literature Mankiw ( 2000) from Harvard University USA and the author of Principles of Microeconomics explained here that Economic profits are calculated by development both explicit as well as implicit costs however Accounting profits are calculated apply only explicit costs. therefore , accounting profits are higher(prenominal) than economic profits Neale( 2001) h ave prove that due to forgoing opportunity costs, delayed decisions can be seen as option between certain loss and the risk of greater or zero loss. Chung, (2005)from Princeton University have adjudicate in their work The Opportunity Cost of Admission Preferences at elect(ip) Universities that economic cost of a decision relies on the cost of the project that is selected and also the profits that the second best alternative project may had given if selected.This perspective of scarcity of resource leads to the dimension of opportunity cost. Hawkins et. al ( 2008 ) in their article Cost and benefit psycho epitome are of the mess that the next best alternative is an important concept in cost and benefit analysis (CBA). The benefits gone by not implementing the second best-loved choice are known as opportunity costs. Opportunity costs are applicable in calculating costs of a project. Opportunity costs help in economic scrutiny. In fiscal investigation market values are used as the market terms for man power has the market value same as a persons wageThe Indian scholars are also of the view that Opportunity Cost of Idle Capacity Zero, fending the work of (Coase 1938). The queryers of M2 Presswire publications have found that opportunity cost of ignoring the markets, have disastrous roots as eBay failed to beat yahoo in this regard. Buchanan (1969 ) says that it is only when to bind the term opportunity cost to this idea that only decision changing cost represents an analysis of given up opportunities. and to invent other vivid terms to mention ecision altering cost in a logic of choice and to the objective cost of the prophetic theory. Hebert (1985 ) gave a very comprehensive idea about the market value. Yet his belief of fundamental value has quite possibly been a red-herring in the antiquity of economic analysis, according to him market value is sensitive to elements other than on record costs few of them are independent. Horwitz (2010) identifi es the partiality of opportunity costs on either sides of the market connections so well to the importance of capital and economic calculation in the Austrian theory of the market process.Aherns (2008) says that worry accountants almost(prenominal) prior duty is to relate the available reserves with the future transactionss of the business. Whereas this process is rather simpler in economics to localise which of the available alternates is going to pay off highest future cash flows Kearing et. al (2005) are of the view that multiple allocation of capital funds , commercial message analysis and manufacturer side opportunity costs are all the unified part of the Austrian ideology. Woodbery (2000) says that the true opportunity cost of using the additional capability is the change in the worth of the firms choices.By emphasizing on the state-contingent nature of best decisions, his framework distinguishes that the cost is not always equal to the present value of explicit venture or manufacturing decisions. Taylor (2005) suggests that many trained economists may not completely comprehend opportunity cost. Frank (2005) state that comparative prices helps in finding out the comparative worth of appointed opportunities. His hypothesis is based on an indepth study of consumer indifferense curves. According to the author the economic cost is virtually the opportunity cost.Samuelson( 2009) puts stress on a near link between opportunity costs and cost of available resources. Economic cost consist of not only the noticeable mo concludingary purchases or on record financial transactions but also more(prenominal) than(prenominal) indirect opportunity costs, much(prenominal) as the profits on the work force supplied by the owner of a resource company and other returns of standardised nature. The factors mentioned are firmly controlled by the quotations available and demand in private-enterprise(a) markets. Henderson (2011), said that by opportunity cost of a resource, the economist mean the financial worth of the second favourite utilization of the available resource.Opportunity costs as in (Lawrance Gitman 2000) are those profits or returns that could be obtained from best alternative use of an a retained asset. So opportunity cost is the cash that shall not be obtained because of engaging an asset in project under consideration. Due to this, opportunity cost should be included as an expense or loss while doing the project evaluation. Raftery et. al(1999) writes that consideration of opportunity cost is essential for the economists while determining the costs. As resources are less compared to the needs, so application of resources in one profitable project hinders their use in other profitable pojectsBauman (2011) says that opportunity cost is the second best choice, he said that it is difficult to clearly frame the opportunity cost as identifying second best choices is a knotty matter. According to him the concept of opportunity cos t can only be clearly specify in academic problems as in practical field a project price to worth calculations are complex Kimberly (1998) said that computerized accounting systems today solely emphasize on cash in and out of the firm, this eventually attracts clever dealers to dump credits that make water a king-size accounting profits.By the introduction of opportunity cost in persuit of calculating the true costs enforces further control on reporting process. Such concept implication helps the auditors to identify the fake earnings shown in the financial statements made in the year end. Recklies (2001) argues that from economic perspective the cost include all those expenditures that are crucial for perpetual succession of a business as as going concern, it also consist of the reimbursement for owners in shape of profit so that they maintain their investment portfolio within the firm.Marshall (2009) identifies the income as a add of personal skills, capital funds invested, as sets possessed and the reputation of the business. Leeson (2008) has explained in his look into work the uses if the concept of uncertainty and derives from this concept of the value of data and how it can be calculated. And emphasized upon the role of counselling accounting in the decision-making Berntell (2005) have focused on the optimum utilization of scarce resources like weewee to give maximum utility by reducing various costs and losses. For which economist must make a clear cut cost and benefit analysisDmytrenko (1997 )has elaborated in his price to value investigation the opportunity cost of growingd automation in a firm via changing the human resource by computers and equipment Caplan (2003) says that the term opportunity cost is sometimes confusing. Sometimes it is used to submit to the profit foregone from the next best option, and Often it is used to mention the difference in benefit of decision made and the benift of second favourite decision that is given up Frak er( 2006) suggests that EVA is a unique financial exploit determining tool .Unlike other financial efficiency ratios, it gives a different outlook of a Banks financial health by including the cost of Capital employeed in the business and is more of concern to its shareholders. Shcherbakov( 2012) explains that implication of the concept of EVA is an enhanced measuring technique to find out the effect of planetaryization on the commercial carrying out of any business King (2009) explained that Accountancy and political economy work for different purposes. He explained the multi-national corporation scenarios and compared the use of economic profits with that of accounting profitsLocal Literature (Hasan Al-Basteki 1998) worked on the use of modern Accounting techniques in the decision making in Bahrain and he concluded that not just the western reality is implementing the in the altogether costing techniques but the middle east is also adopting the modern techniques Synthesis of t he Literature Review The synthesis of the literature reviewed enlightens few similarities and differences with this research studies . The main similarities found in the literature are as follows i) Opportunity cost has been used in different parts of the world specially in Banks and Construction industry ii) The No. f alternatives available yield the Opportunity Cost iii) Economic factors like inflation has effect on the project evaluation by the Banks . A closer review of these research papers show that Economists belonging to the Austrian school of thoughts are of the view that i) Opprtunity cost is not as important as Economic net income are for economic decision making ii) scarceness of resource is a factor which set up the decision makers approach The literature explains the significance of opportunity cost in framing the actual picture of the financial position of a company, same is the content evaluation of an investment project.Opportunity cost helps identifying the t rue cost of a project Opportunity cost is important in the determining the accurate financial position, hence in this research the blood between the factors effecting opportunity cost and decision making is under study Theoretical Frame Work The study tends to explore the Opportunity cost and EVA for a given project in order to understand their relationship with each other. Very little literature is available in Economics and Accounting to determine the true profits of an organization(Denise Woodbery).The idea behind this research is to establish the nature of relationship between Economic value added that reflects the monetory importance of a given project or in other words the economic profit and that of Opportunity Cost that reflects the accounting profit of the same project. Conceptual Frame Work The idea behind this research is to find out how effective is Opportunity cost in project evaluation perceived by the Bankers in the Kingdom of Bahrain.The data is collected and analy sed to understand what status opportunity cost concept holds in project financial evaluation and its relative efficiency perceived by the bankers at selected commercial banks of Kingdom of Bahrain The study tends to explore the two concepts for a given project in order to understand their relationship with each other. The Opportunity cost as discussed in literature like any other relevant cost adds to the overall project expenditure (Ferraro & Laura O Taylor)Opportunity cost effects the total Cost of a Project , any increase in Opportunity cost means increase I nthe total cost of the project The higher the Opportunity Cost of a Project is the small will be the net profit of it However the higher the net profit of the project is Opportunity Cost of the Project will be lower. Financial decision making tends to go for a project with smaller cost and hence inclusion of opportunity cost will alter the project cost and alter the decision ultimately.Various factors like availability of alternatives (James Raftery 1999), Scarcity of resources (Robert Frank 2005), Economic factors like trade cycle recession, inflation (Peter T leeson 2008) effects the use of opportunity cost in Project costing CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the research design and methodology, sampling design, respondents of the study, research instrument, validity and reliability of the instrument, data gathering procedures, and statistical treatment of the collected data.Research stick out This study used the descriptive type of research which involves assemble data which provide knowledge about the variables and then systematically tabularizing, portraying, and formation the data gathered (Glass & Hopkins, 1984). To get evidence concerning the current standing of the incidences to show what happens in terms of change in value of the variables or settings in a state of research.. Opportunity Cost reflects the monetary importance of the next best alternative project.The s tudy helps to find out how effectively this concept is incorporated in project evaluation procedure Research Design This is a descriptive research in which the population from which data is collected are the instruction Personals from different business concerns established and working in Kingdom of Bahrain, directly or indirectly associated with the decision making and investment evaluation . Respondents of the Study The target population includes the working class particularly the managers , assistant managers and executives who work in Bahrain and their field esponsibility include Investment Analysis ,Project evaluation and decision making of similar nature. Sample Size The sample size is 50 and the response rate is well above the international standard of quantitative research required to validate the result of the study Sampling Design There are many methods of sampling however for this study Random Sampling is used that is from the target population a sample of 100 is collect ed on random basis.The study uses random sampling for convenience and to avoid bias of respondents that work in one organization have one opinion(as in cluster sampling) Research factor The instrument used in this study is Questionnaire, the content of the questionnaire that consist of 20 queries the first five of which are about the habitual information of the respondent, remain queries for which the respondents will answer on a Likert Scale. All the queries will help to find the relation between the two variables Opportunity Cost (IV) and Decision Making (DV)Part I go out demographics of the respondents in terms of age , gender, educational attainment, work experience in years Part II Provide the data about the respondents opinion on various factors that influence their decision while making financial evaluation of a project. The answers to these questions will be given on a five point rating outgo. 5. powerfully Agree 4. Agree 3. Moderately Agree 2. resist 1. Strongly Disa gree Validity of the InstrumentThe validity of instrument is carefully checked by the research committee that includes research professors, statisticians and advisors. The recommendations were incorporated. The justification of this validation was to avoid vague items and bias statements which have been correctly achieved. Reliability of the Instrument The questionnaire is pre-tested to test the reliability of it, with a small group of individualsworking in different companies in the Kingdom of Bahrain, in order to check their understanding of the questions.Data arrangement Method Questionnaire copies were distributed among bank officers in different branches of distinct commercial banks in various regions of Kingdom of Bahrain. The target respondents are expected to be acquainted with the subject and questions, included in the questionnaire. There are other methods of data line of battle like documental analysis and interview however for this study behold methodology is opted. A copy of questionnaire is provided in the appendix Statistical Treatment of the DataThere are many choices of appropriate statistical methods however Correlation Coefficient as statistical method is used, so to find out the relation between the two variables. The curriculum vitae form was used the Likert five point scale for the respondents to choose from as follows pic Very few enterprises are using opportunity cost for just one reason. It is clearly evident that Opportunity cost related information is being used to accurately manage wide range of activities across a banking organization. Activities influenced by Opportunity cost calculation Activities % of respondents growth be & Profitability 65 carrying out Measurement 47 Shared improvement be 41 supply & Budgeting 40 client costing 38 Customer/Channel Costs & Profitability 38 switch set 25 Outcome / Output based management 25 Expectedly, opportunity cost is used for mathematical growth costing by approxima tely two by three of those respondants working in banking sector. Its precision over tralatitious costing methods is borne out later in the survey with 87% finding that their Opportunity Cost product costs differed substantially from handed-down costing methods, leading around 50% to reprice their products as a resultValidating the views expressed by Kaplan & Norton in their latest book system Maps Converting Intangible Assets into Tangible Outcomes, which lays emphesisis on the importance of using Opportunity Cos to support a Balance Scorecard, nearly half of all respondents are using their Opportunity Cost data to support their public presentation circumspection The use of Opportunity Cost to support Shared Services costing has increased in popularity over the last few years. Now that congenital servings are represent up to 30% of an memorial tablets costs, it has become imperative to accurately reflect how those services are consumed by business units. Over 40% of respond ents are using opportunity cost to support Shared Service costing, enabling them to understand who and what is driving exercise of their internal services, and thereby increasing the effectiveness of their focus an core business. These trends are repeated by those who do not yet use opportunity cost, but are prep to. They want to use opportunity cost to support Initiative % of respondents planning to use OPPORTUNITY COST Product Costing 55 Planning & Budgeting 36 Customer costing 27 Process/Continuous Improvement 27 The most noticeable difference is that only 18% are planning to use the information to support Performance Measurement. This could well be because the ease of which opportunity cost lends itself to Performance Measurement is not evident until an opportunity cost is up and running.Alternatively, the respondents may be looking to introduce opportunity cost to solve a pressing business requirement, and the links between Opportunity Cost and performance metrics are no t immediately apparent. Opportunity Cost for Planning The emphasis of Bankers has moved from historical costs to future costs. An enormous 94% of those questioned are now using opportunity cost, or plan to use, opportunity costs for developmental drives. Opportunity cost Planners are looking at all aspects of their organisations in order to identify improvement opportunities. Some 60% are looking to identify process improvements, with 55% looking at natural action level improvements via resource planning, and 49% looking to affect outline formulation. However, only 13% are questioning their organisations process design in a fundamental way.Consistent with historic uses of opportunity Cost planning data is being used to support a physique of initiatives, although there is a surprising focus on opportunity cost for goal setting. Initiative % of OPPORTUNITY COST Planners Shared Service Costing 51 Product Costing 49 Defining team/dept goals 27 Defining organisational goals 13 Pr oduct/Service Costing and Customer ProfitabilityBy using cause and effect tracing rather than allocations, opportunity cost better reflects the value chain of how organisations consume costs and provides more accurate product, service and customer costings than achieved using traditional costing techniques. The difference in opportunity cost product costs to absorption or other allocation based costings can be dramatic. The survey shows that 87% of practitioners found that their product and service costs differed from traditional costings markedly. The majority had an average adaptation of between 5 and 10%, which can be dramatic at a gross or net margin level. However, a surprising way out of respondents (11%) see variations of over 100% Average variation % upper limit variation % 0 13 10% 25 1-5% 15 10-25% 17 5-10% 26 25-50% 25 10-15% 13 50-75% 14 15-20% 10 75-100% 8 20% 23 100% 11 Cost Reduction and Process ImprovementThat first rudiment can improve your bottom line is beyond doubt, with potential cost savings amounting to 25% of cost bases being identified. Some organisations are yet to find where they can reduce their costs, but it is worth noting that over 70% of those who have not identified cost savings have less than 100 activities in their model. Whilst it is important to prevent ABC models become too large and unmanageable (primarily because they can induce analysis paralysis), it is essential that a average level of detail is available, so that there is sufficient information on which to make cost reducing or revenue enhancing decisions. After all, profit outcomes are the result of process design and activity workflow Maximum potential cost saving as a % of cost base % 0% 18 1-5% 21 5-10% 33 10-15% 8 15-20% 13 20-25% 2 25% 5 A variety of methods are being used to help organisations translate their ABC data into real cost reductions. Cost number one wood analysis is the most frequently used method for aiding cost reduction an d/or process redesign, with 67% of organisations using this technique. Process single-valued function and benchmarking are also popular, as is repricing of products and/or services, and analysis of the value that an activity adds to an organisation. Top techniques used to aid cost reduction % Cost driver analysis 67 Process mapping & redesign 52 Benchmarking 52 Repricing 50 Value adding analysis 42 Product rationalisation 38 Value chain analysis 32 Conclusions ABC can, and does, add value to organisations. 96% of respondents have found the experience to be beneficial to their organisations, and 98% are expecting their implementations to deliver even more positive returns on their investment in the future Level of benefit delivered by ABC % achieved % future Adverse impact 4 2 Negligible benefit 22 13 Moderate benefit 54 60 Substantial benefit 20 25 Regardless of the benefit analysis above, respondents recommend the use of ABC unanimously In particular, practitioners re commend using ABC for product costing and cost reduction, to derive the most benefits, although there is a general belief held by ABC practitioners that the methodology should be broadly used as shown below. ABC supporting % of organisations Product/service costing & lucrativeness 80 Cost reduction 65 Continuous Improvement schedule 56 Business Process Re-engineering 55 Shared Services Costing 51 Customer, channel or value chain analysis 44 ABC is generating real benefits for all sorts of organisations across Australia. These benefits can only increase as more organisations are looking to start an ABC project for the first time, but the full potential of ABC will not be realised as so many existing ABC users are still not employing ABC to its full capabilities. It is important that experienced ABC companies capitalise on their implementations to achieve the maximum possible benefits. change magnitude the scale of an ABC project need not be an expensive, time-consuming proce ss. There are cost-effective solutions that combine ABC, Process Mapping and Balanced Scorecard, to produce automated, regular reports with a minimum of manual intervention. With organisation-wide implementations providing much greater cost savings, expanding your ABC project can only be advantageous to your organisations bottom line. CHAPTER 4 Analysis and interpretation The data collection method for this study is survey questionnaire conducted face-to-face with 51 randomly chosen Bankers from various commercial banks in Bahrain from various cities. The questionnaire includes multiple choice, open-ended, and Likert scale questions.Some questions of the survey were adopted form various previous studies (Brierly et al. , 2001 new wave Triest and Elshahat, 2007 Wijewardena and Zoysa, 1999). The data collection period ranges from October 2012 to November 2012. (1) general information on the business organizations and respondents and (2) cost and management accounting practices. giv e in 4. 1 Information gathered from the first part of the questionnaire. Bank miscellanea Percent Commercial Banks 40 Muslim Banks 10 Other Banks 1 No. f Employees Percent 10 to 49 50 to 99 90% 100 and more 10% age of the Banks Percent 10 years or less 10% 20 year or less 80% 20 years or more 10% In the Table 1, Bank classification, position of respondent, number of employees, and age of Banks are presented. In Bank classification, the highest percentage belongs to commercial banks (5banks), and others includes Banks dealing particularly in investment (1 bank) 4. 1. Product costing methodsThe respondents were asked to specify the cost factors they implement in an investment project costing. According to the answers, the most wide used costing factor is Financing cost (31 respondent), followed by opportunity cost (11 respondent) and loan process cost (9 respondents). In Table 2, which shows the expound answers to this question, the most significant points are the fina ncing cost widely by lower managerial levels, and that of opportunity cost largely by top managerial level. Primary cause for the financing cost by banks is that they beseech more of the saving accounts than fixed deposit accounts. Table 4. 2 roughly important Cost elements in an Investment Project Bank Classification Financial Cost Loan Processing Cost Opportunity Cost Other Commercial Banks 20 3 3 0 Islamic Banks 6 3 5 0 Other Banks 5 3 3 0 Total 31 9 11 0 4. 2. Complications faced in product costing The respondents were also asked to point out the difficulties they encounter in Investment project costing. Out of 51 respondents, 22 see the limited Complexity in cost evaluation as top difficulty (43 percent), availability of alternative resources(33. 3 percent), followed by economic instability (24. 7 percent). 4. 3. Role of Opportunity Cost in instruction Accounting PracticesIn another part of the survey, which was adopted from train Triest and Elshahat (2007)s study, res pondents were asked to bulls eye the role of opportunity cost in various financial analysis on a Likert scale of 1 (no role) to 5 (major role). To evaluate the results, one sample t-test was conducted (Table 4). The results showed that pricing decisions are the most important area where opportunity cost is deemed important at an average of 4. 16, followed by customer profitableness and activity analysis at 4. 07. Performance measurement and make or buy decisions with an average of 4. 04 and 3. 96 respectively are also important areas where opportunity cost is used. However, opportunity cost is not seen important in product mix in decisions, and adding or deleting products as much as other areas. Management Accounting Practicies fuddled S. D t-test Pricing decisions 4. 15 1. 146 4. 29 Customer profitability 4. 08 1. 034 4. 01 Performance measurement 4. 03 1. 071 3. 714 Activity analysis 4. 08 1. cxx 3. 793 Make or buy decisions 3. 96 0. 62 3. 576 Product mix decisions 3. 5 4 1. 168 0. 289 Adding or deleting products 3. 47 1. 370 0. 199 Table 4. Results of one sample t-test for use of Opportunity cost in management accounting practicies (Test value=3. 5) Management Accounting Practicies Mean S. D t-test Pricing decisions 4. 15 1. 146 4. 9 Customer profitability 4. 08 1. 034 4. 01 Performance measurement 4. 03 1. 071 3. 714 Activity analysis 4. 08 1. 120 3. 793 Make or buy decisions 3. 96 0. 962 3. 576 Product mix decisions 3. 54 1. 168 0. 289 Adding or deleting products 3. 47 1. 370 0. 199 Furthermore, the findings are compared with the results of caravan Triest and Elshahat (2007). The comparison indicated that two studies yielded parallel results. As seen in Table 5, first three items with the highest mean are the same. In both countries, pricing decisions, customer profitability, and performance measurement are the most prominent areas in which costing information is applied. Among the remaining four application areas, the rank of activity analysis is different. In this study, activity analysis is the tail in ranking, but it is the last in ranking in Van Triest and Elshahat (2007)s study. Table 5. Comparison of results with the results of Van Triest and Elshahat (2007) Management Accounting Practices Mean Rank Mean* Rank* Pricing decisions 4. 15 1 4. 44 1 Customer profitability 4. 06 2 4. 19 2 Performance measurement 4. 06 3 4. 11 3 Activity analysis 4. 08 4 2. 33 7 Make or buy decisions 3. 99 5 3. 5 4 Product mix decisions 3. 54 6 3. 33 5 Adding or deleting products 3. 50 7 2. 89 6 * The results of Van Triest and Elshahat (2007) 4. 5. The ratio of opportunity cost to total cost In the questionnaire survey, the ratio of opportunity cost to total cost (O. C/T. C) was also questioned. boilersuit mean for all the banks is 34. 48 percent. (Table 6) was conducted to see the significant differences among banks. The results showed that there is a significant difference among industries (significant at 0. 10).Duncan test from Post Hoc tests showed that Commercial Banks has the highest OC/TC ratio and is significantly different than Islamic Banks and Investment Banks and miscellaneous Banks. Table 6. The ratio of opportunity cost to total cost (percent) 4. 6. The reasons for the increased entertain in opportunity cost manifestation in banks dealing The respondents were asked to pit the reasons for the increased manifestation of Opportunity cost in their daily dealing on a Likert scale of 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). A nominate of reasons was provided for the respondents so that they evaluated each. The results of one-sample t-test in Table 7 showed that decreasing profitability (4. 9) is the unproblematic reason which increases the importance of opportunity cost. Other reasons which increase the importance of opportunity cost are increasing costs (4. 57), increasing internal and worldwide competition (4. 30), and economic crises (4. 23). Actually, means of four items a bove 4. 00 indicate that they are all factors considered important for the increased interest in opportunity cost . This means profitability of companies is decreasing, possibly due to increasing costs, and increasing domestic and global competition. Economic crises which hit companies from time to time are also important reason for the increased interest in opportunity cost identification and implication. Table 7.The reasons for the increased interest in opportunity cost Calculation (Testvalue=3. 5) Mean S. D t-test Decreasing profitability 0. 566 14. 170 Increasing costs 0. 666 11. 929 Increasing domestic and global competition 0. 940 6. 450* Economic crises 1. 020 5. 399* epochal at 0. 001 level 4. 7. Perceived importance of opportunity cost in overall Banking Operation Lastly, the respondents were asked to evaluate the perceived importance of Opportunity cost that are utilized in banking organizations on a Likert scale of 1 (unimportant) to 5 (very important). The results of one-sample ttest in Table 8 indicated that the most important management accounting practices in decreasing order are budgeting (4. 48), planning and control (4. 33), cost-volumeprofit analysis (4. 3), target costing (4. 16), quality cost reporting (4. 09), performance measurement and evaluation (4. 02), responsibility accounting (4. 0), standard costing and sectionalization analysis (3. 89), and strategic planning (3. 78). Transfer pricing (3. 65) is unique practice that is significantly not important based on test value of 3. 5. These findings indicate that companies perceive traditional management accounting tools still important. For example, budgeting, planning and control, and cost-volume-profit analysis are perceived the most important of all management accounting practices. Quality costing and target costing as new management accounting practices are utilized by the companies. However, strategic planning, and withdraw pricing are perceived the least important ones. This may be due to size of the sample firms.Since the sample consists mostly of small and medium-sized enterprises (according to number of employees), some tools may be too sophisticated to be utilized. Szendi and Shum (1999) states that the large the firm the more sophisticated the management accounting system and the more likely isthe firm to utilize sophisticated management accounting techniques and practices. Abdel-Kader and Luther (2008) also proved that large firms adopt more sophisticated management accounting techniques and practices than small firms. Table 8. Perceived importance of Opportunity Cost in routine banking operations (Test value=3. 5) Mean S.D t-test Budgeting 0. 754 9. 911** Planning and control 0. 819 7. vitamin D** Cost-volume-profit analysis 0. 871 6. 900** Target Costing 0. 849 5. 820** Total Quality Management 1. one hundred fifteen 3. 890** Performance measurement and evaluation 1. 027 3. 39** Responsibility accounting 1. 056 3. 450** bar costing and variance analysis 1. 140 2. 480* Strategic planning 1. 011 2. 050* Transfer pricing 1. 300 0. 860 ** Significant at 0. 001 level * Significant at 0. 05 level CHAPTER 5 Summary and Conclusion The survey revealed the perceived importance of Opportunity Cost at selected commercial banks in the Kingdom of Bahrain.The findings are expected to contribute to the existing literature about the subject, especially in developing markets. The major findings of the study are as follows The most vital cost element for Commercial Banks is financial cost The complexity in loan costing poses as the highest ranking difficulty due to the availability of alternative projects, Customer Activity Analysis and pricing decisions are the most important area where opportunity cost is calculated (parallel to the finding of Van Triest and Elshahat, 2007), Overall mean of the ratio of overhead to total cost is 34. 48 percent for all Commercial Banks in the Kingdom of Bahrain,The highest opportunity cost/t otal cost ratio belongs to non-islamic Commercial Banks, Decreasing profitability, increasing costs and competition, and economic crises are reasons which increase the importance of opportunity cost The most important use of Opportunity Cost is in Budgeting out of all routine functioning of Commercial Banks (parallel to the finding of Chenhall and Langfield-Smith, 1998) The findings indicate that Banks perceive traditional management accounting tools less important. The new management accounting practices such as strategic planning, and transfer pricing are perceived more important than traditional ones. Therefore, the banks have been calculating the Opportunity Costs for these management accounting tools. Scope for further researchSince the sample consists mostly of medium sized local branches of International banks , they may not reflect the applications of large scale banking corps. Secondly, the results are confined to the Commercial Banks and should not be generalized to the ot her sectors. Thirdly, since the survey conducted on companies operating in Bahrain , the findings may not be generalized for the worldwide policies of the Banks. For future research, whole region wide and more comprehensive survey could be conducted with the participation of more banking companies from different countries. Moreover, case studies can be conducted to make more in-depth analysis about cost and management accounting practices.